China’s diplomatic relations with European states, such as the United Kingdom (UK), France, and Italy, began in the mid-1970s. The initial process led to the establishment of formal relations between China and the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1975, laying the foundation for broader Europe-China cooperation.

Between 2000 and 2014, relations between Europe and China expanded through growing trade, investment, and diplomatic engagement. Bilateral trade increased from €177 billion in 2004 to over €418 billion in 2014 (Figure 1). Political ties were also institutionalised through the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2003.

The introduction of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013 deepened connectivity. The 17 1 mechanism was increasingly joined by countries from Central and Eastern Europe. By 2013, relations between Europe and China were moving on a positive trajectory.

A significant turning point in Sino-European relations emerged in 2014 due to the Crimean Conflict. This initiated European reassessment of geopolitical risk and strategic dependence, which intensified after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war in 2022. The war altered Europe’s approach towards China, exposing vulnerabilities linked to strategic dependency and supply-chain resilience.

European governments began adopting a de-risking policy to reduce vulnerability in the energy, technology, and infrastructure sectors. This shift was most evident in the adoption of the European Economic Security Strategy of 2023 and the UK’s National Security and Investment Act, which introduced stricter investment screening mechanisms while diversifying trade and supply chain partnerships.These measures led to a decline of Chinese direct investment in Europe from its peak in 2016........

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