Iran is one of the few societies in Islamic history where religious scholars eventually replaced the monarchy itself. In most Muslim states, rulers controlled religious institutions and employed scholars as officials of the government. Iran developed along a very different trajectory. Over several centuries, the Shiʿite clergy accumulated authority independent of political rulers until they became one of the most powerful institutions in society. The 1979 Islamic Revolution was therefore not simply a sudden religious uprising. As sociologist Said Amir Arjomand argues in his influential book The Turban for the Crown (where a lot of the insight of this article comes from), it was the culmination of a long historical process in which religious authority gradually rivaled—and ultimately displaced—monarchical power.

The roots of this development lie in the early history of Shiʿism. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, Muslims disagreed over who should lead the community. Supporters of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, believed leadership properly belonged to him and his descendants. Ali eventually became the fourth caliph in 656, but his assassination in 661 deepened divisions within the Muslim world. Over time several Shiʿite branches emerged, yet the one that eventually shaped Iran’s religious landscape was the Twelver (Imami) Shiʿa. Its theology would have profound political consequences.

The decisive moment came with the Occultation of the twelfth Imam. Twelver Shiʿites believe that the final Imam—Muhammad al-Mahdi—disappeared in 874 and will return at the end of time to restore justice. His disappearance created a unique dilemma. If the legitimate ruler of the Muslim community was absent, who possessed authority in the meantime? Over time Shiʿite scholars argued that qualified jurists must interpret divine law during the Imam’s absence. This gradually elevated the clergy into guardians of religious law and moral order. Unlike Sunni scholars, whose authority often depended on rulers, Shiʿite jurists derived legitimacy from their role as representatives of the hidden Imam.

Over the centuries this authority became increasingly institutionalized. Shiʿite believers were encouraged to follow leading jurists known as marājiʿ al-taqlid, or “sources of emulation.” These senior scholars issued legal opinions and guided the religious life of the community. They also collected religious taxes, including khums, a levy traditionally amounting to one-fifth of certain forms of income. Because these funds flowed directly to clerical authorities rather than the state, the Shiʿite religious establishment developed a remarkable degree of financial independence. This autonomy would later prove politically significant.

The next major turning point arrived in the early sixteenth century with the rise of the Safavid dynasty. When the Safavids took power in 1501, they declared Twelver Shiʿism the official religion of Iran. This decision permanently distinguished Iran from the largely Sunni Muslim world around it. To consolidate their rule, the Safavids imported Shiʿite scholars from Arab lands, built religious schools, and sponsored the spread of Shiʿite law and ritual throughout the country. They also suppressed rival Sunni and Sufi........

© The Times of Israel (Blogs)