The question remains even today: on what legal basis can the Jana Sangh or the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh conclusively be called fascist? They were accused of being anti-democratic and anti-constitutional, but these accusations were never decisively established in legal terms. Between 1977 and 1989, the rise of coalition politics transformed the direction of Indian politics.

There came a time when V. P. Singh was supported on one side by Atal Bihari Vajpayee and on the other by Jyoti Basu. It became increasingly clear that after the Congress, the BJP was the most organized political force. Even in the election where the BJP won only four seats, its vote share remained significant. Later, both its seats and influence continued to grow. There is little doubt that the BJP gained its greatest national advantage from the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. Whatever one’s interpretation of this movement, labeling it simply as fascist politics would be an oversimplification.

It may be viewed as an example of religion-based politics, but fascism is a far more complex question. If every cultural assertion is called fascist, then the same question would arise regarding the nature of the Emergency of 1975–77. The BJP steadily increased its strength through democratic processes. In 1999, a government under Atal Bihari Vajpayee was formed and successfully completed five years in office. After its defeat, the BJP also accepted the role of the opposition.

Vajpayee’s government is generally not described as fascist. Throughout this period, the issue of the Gujarat riots remained central. Serious allegations were made regarding Narendra Modi’s role. It was said that the state government had failed to uphold “raj dharma” (the duty of governance). It was also claimed that Vajpayee wanted to remove Modi, but Lal Krishna Advani protected him. Nevertheless, it is also true that after prolonged judicial and constitutional scrutiny, Modi was cleared of direct criminal responsibility. Between 2007 and 2014, Indian politics underwent a qualitative transformation.

Through the “Gujarat model,” the BJP attempted to combine development, administrative efficiency, and Hindu identity. The party........

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