The disaster that unfolded in Nepal and Tibet started with a rock-ice avalanche that transformed into a devastating debris flow, the kind that was responsible for the Dharali disaster in 2025. A rock-ice avalanche from Ronti Peak in 2021 also became a debris flow, causing the Chamoli disaster. None of these disasters is “natural”. There are many rock avalanches each year and thousands of debris flows; it is only when they adversely impact our lives and surroundings that they become disasters.

The first reports from Nepal suggested an earthquake and, potentially, a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). GLOFs are indeed a source of risk to Himalayan communities. Several years ago, we calculated that 15 million people globally faced GLOF danger, over 9 million of them in High Mountain Asia, nearly 3 million in India alone. But in fact, the “earthquake” in Nepal was from the force of........

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