THE dispute over Kashmir remains one of the most enduring geopolitical flashpoints in South Asia, shaping not only political and military relations between India and Pakistan but also influencing regional water security. At the centre of this complex dynamic lies the Indus Waters Treaty — a landmark agreement signed in 1960 and brokered by the World Bank. Despite wars, crises and persistent hostility, the treaty has long been regarded as one of the most successful transboundary water agreements in modern history. However, recurring accusations of violations have increasingly placed its durability under scrutiny. Under the treaty framework, the three eastern rivers — Ravi, Beas and Sutlej — were allocated to India while Pakistan received primary rights over the western rivers — Indus, Jhelum and Chenab — with limited Indian use permitted for non-consumptive purposes such as hydropower generation. This arrangement reflected a strategic reality: Pakistan’s agrarian economy depends heavily on the western rivers, making uninterrupted flows a matter of national survival. Any perceived interference, therefore, carries strategic and existential implications.

Pakistan has repeatedly raised concerns over Indian hydropower projects in Kashmir, arguing that certain designs exceed treaty limits and could allow manipulation of water flows. Projects such as the Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project and the Ratle Hydroelectric Plant have been particularly contentious. Pakistan argues that design parameters, including spillway configuration and pondage........

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