Digital public infrastructure is globally promoted as a transformative solution for welfare delivery and financial inclusion. However, India’s DPI architecture demonstrates that these vast systems can be exclusionary, evidenced by authentication failures, market concentration, and privacy concerns. Ultimately, DPI outcomes depend on legal safeguards and citizen accountability. A governance-first approach, centred on rights and public oversight, is essential to ensure DPI strengthens democratic and developmental goals rather than reinforcing existing inequalities.

The authors are grateful........

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