The collapse of Yemen’s western front was not primarily the result of sheer Houthi numbers. It resulted from a fused Russian-Iranian command system in which elements of Russia’s space-based geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and signals intelligence (SIGINT) capabilities were integrated into an Iranian-led command-and-control (C2) system supporting Houthi operations. Human penetration of Tariq Saleh’s National Resistance Forces gave that system the access required to turn technical collection into a battlefield advantage.

Through Project AURORAH, the GEOINT and SIGINT fusion system I created, I identified and sequenced Russian military reconnaissance over Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq, Israel, the UAE and Jordan during the Iran-US war. A compartmented special-access programme (SAP) within the project reconstructed Russian orbital collection as a single multisensor system, including the sequences that preceded Iran’s precision strikes on countries across the region and on US military assets. That work later considerably assisted a major CNN investigation into Russian military geospatial satellite support for Iranian precision targeting across the Middle East.

The underlying principle had already emerged over Iran: orbital intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) was no longer merely supporting operations, but helping construct the operational picture of the battlespace before strikes were carried out. That use of satellite intelligence was already visible during the Iran war. Russian GEOINT mapped how forces were deployed, their movement corridors, headquarters and logistical changes, while SIGINT mapped the sources of electronic signals, communications patterns and command relationships.

The advantage came from sequencing different forms of satellite collection over time, not from any single spacecraft. Different reconnaissance satellites provided complementary geographic and electromagnetic coverage, allowing changes in how forces moved and operated to be followed over time rather than captured as isolated snapshots. During the Iran war, this combination of different forms of satellite........

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