For decades, Afghanistan has been explained through wars — the Soviet invasion, the civil war, the US intervention, the Taliban's return. Yet beneath these dramatic chapters lies a quieter, older tension that has shaped the country's political life: the unresolved question of ethnicity and power.

Afghanistan's instability did not begin with foreign troops, nor will it end simply with their departure. It is rooted in how the state was formed, who came to dominate it and how other communities experienced that dominance.

The foundations of modern Afghanistan were laid in the 18th century under Ahmad Shah Abdali. His consolidation of Pashtun tribes and expansion of territory marked the birth of Afghanistan as a political entity. It was a remarkable achievement in a time of regional upheaval. But it was also a state shaped by the realities of its moment — tribal loyalty, military strength and Pashtun leadership.

That historical beginning left a lasting imprint.

Afghanistan has always been multi-ethnic. Pashtuns form the largest group, followed by Tajiks. Hazaras, Uzbeks and smaller communities such as Turkmen, Baloch, Aimaq, Pashai and Nuristanis complete the country's rich but complex mosaic. These identities are not symbolic; they are geographic and deeply rooted. Pashtuns have traditionally dominated the south and east. Tajiks are concentrated in the northeast and urban centres. Uzbeks inhabit the north. Hazaras largely reside in the central highlands.

For much of Afghanistan's history, political authority radiated from Kabul unevenly. The........

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