This Halloween, trick-or-treaters the world over will don pointy black hats and drag along a broom as they trawl the neighbourhood in pursuit of lollies.

This typical representation of the “witch” originates from medieval European witch trials, where many innocent women, girls, and men were violently killed through religious persecution – often by being hanged or burned to death.

But the concept of witchcraft is much older than this, with textual evidence of witches and sorcerers dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, more than 4,500 years ago. Mesopotamia is a historical area primarily comprising modern-day Iraq, as well as parts of Iran, Turkey and Syria.

Many different cultures and empires arose from this region over thousands of years, including the Sumerians, Akkadians and Babylonians. It is also where the earliest known writing systems emerged, more than 5,000 years ago.

The earliest account of a witchcraft battle

The earliest known text to demonstrate witchcraft as we know it comes from a Sumerian epic called The Tale of Enmerkar and Ensuḫkešdanna, written around 1900 BCE.

Two kings called Enmerkar and Ensuḫkešdanna are fighting, as Ensuḫkešdanna demands Enmerkar to become his subordinate. Both kings send an agent to act on their behalf.

A “wise woman” named Saĝburu fights on behalf of Enmerkar, while an unnamed sorcerer fights for Ensuḫkešdanna.........

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