A WHO report and a meta-analysis confirm that spanking has no benefits for children and carries real risks.

Spanking predicts increases in aggressive and acting-out behavior in children, even years later.

Warm, supportive parenting can buffer some of the harm, but does not fully undo the negative effects.

Researchers estimate that up to 40 percent of U.S. families spank their children, and 1.2 billion children worldwide are physically punished at home. Many parents justify the behavior because they grew up being spanked. Others point to a theory that spanking is less harmful in cultures where it is widely practiced and considered socially acceptable.

But a wave of research published during the past year is strengthening what scientists have demonstrated over the past several decades: Spanking doesn’t work, and it may cause lasting harm to kids.

The most recent comprehensive report on spanking was published in 2025 by the World Health Organization. Combining evidence available globally, it found overwhelming scientific evidence that physical punishment carries multiple risks of harm and has no benefits for children, parents, or societies.

“We know from the vast amount of research on spanking that it simply does not work,” said Kim Kopko, a child development expert at Cornell’s Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research and representative for the World Organization for Early Childhood Education at the United Nations. “It is not only ineffective for correcting children’s behavior, but it is also harmful.”

“The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child views physical discipline as a violation of children’s human rights, and 65-70 countries have banned physical punishment of children in all settings, including the home and school,” she explained.

The WHO report analyzed data from 49 low- and middle-income countries. It found that children exposed to physical punishment are 24 percent less likely to be developmentally on track compared to peers who are not spanked. Children subjected to physical punishment face increased risks of anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and emotional instability. The evidence shows these problems frequently persist into adulthood, leading to higher rates of anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. The problems can also lead to increased rates of contemplating a suicide attempt or dying by suicide.

The WHO report also found that spanking carries broader consequences as well. Children who experience it are more likely to develop aggressive behaviors, struggle academically, and, as adults, engage in violent, antisocial, or criminal conduct. The practice also fuels a broader social acceptance of violence, reinforcing harmful cycles across generations.

Along the same lines, a 2022 systematic review published in the journal Trauma, Violence, & Abuse combined data from 34 articles that evaluated the link between maternal spanking and child development. Researchers found that in 94 percent of the studies, there were significant associations between physical punishment and behavioral problems, delayed cognitive development, and poorer emotional well-being.

The evidence clearly shows that spanking is bad for kids. But is there anything parents can do to counteract the negative consequences? A 2025 longitudinal study posed this question by following more than 2,200 low-income preschool kids enrolled in the Early Head Start program. It found that being spanked at age 5 significantly predicted higher levels of negative behaviors—including aggression, defiance, and rule-breaking—by fifth grade, even after accounting for earlier behavior problems and family factors. Study authors also asked if a warm, supportive mother offset the harm. They found that supportive parenting did appear to protect children from some of the effects of spanking, but did not fully prevent the negative outcomes.

Why is spanking so bad for kids? Scientists point to several mechanisms. Physically punishing a child models the use of force to solve problems. It can damage the parent-child relationship and undermine a child’s sense of safety and trust. Over time, children who are spanked don’t learn better behavior so much as they learn to fear punishment, and that fear doesn’t translate into self-regulation or cooperation once the threat is removed.

So, what works instead? There is clear evidence that positive, non-physical discipline strategies—reasoning with children, setting consistent limits, using natural consequences, and offering warmth alongside structure—are effective ways to discipline children without the negative consequences, and programs that help parents build these skills are effective.

“There are several effective discipline strategies parents can utilize, both ‘in the moment,’ when challenging behaviors arise, and proactively,” Kopko said.

These methods include:

Positively reinforcing good behaviors

Modeling positive behavior

Talking with children about the connections between actions and consequences

The take-home message: The evidence on spanking is not ambiguous. Across countries, cultures, and income levels, research consistently shows that physical punishment leads to worse outcomes for children. Warm and supportive parenting matters enormously, but it works best when paired with non-physical discipline.

© Psychology Today