The post-Cold War order, long assumed to be stable, is coming undone. The relative optimism that once sustained belief in the “liberal international order” has dimmed, along with its promise of equitable peace and prosperity. Selective application of international and humanitarian law has corroded confidence in global institutions, and across much of the world, poverty, alienation, and violence endure. Meanwhile, the UN Security Council remains outdated and constrained, a system built not for justice but for great-power privilege. These developments invite renewed reflection within International Relations theory on how power, legitimacy, and order interact in a rapidly transforming world. Have we crossed a threshold where Hobbesian anarchy once again defines international life, where zero-sum rivalry displaces shared commitments to peace, dignity, and human rights? Or is this simply an echo of Thucydides’ warning that “the strong do what they have to do, and the weak accept what they have to accept”? Such questions lie at the heart of International Relations debates about whether global politics can ever transcend power’s logic. Some attribute this shift to external shocks: the rise of China, Russia’s renewed assertiveness, or disruptive technology. Others locate the problem within the Western-led order itself, whose claims to universality were always shadowed by selectivity and hegemony. Perhaps what is changing is not the nature of power, but our ability to disguise it: the emergence of new actors and technologies has stripped away the pretence, exposing what was always there.

*Originally published in 2025. E-International Relations is free to read. We rely on reader support to make this possible.

One thing is clear: the new global order will not be confined to Earth. The politics of outer space are fast becoming central to questions of power, security, and cooperation. The erosion of the liberal international order is giving rise to a more fluid, plural, and contested architecture of power, extending beyond terrestrial politics into disruptive technologies and outer space. Understanding this evolution requires rethinking how global order itself is structured and sustained. For International Relations scholars and practitioners alike, this means expanding the scope of inquiry beyond traditional state-centric paradigms to include new transdisciplinary domains, technologies, and non-terrestrial arenas.

The Changing Architecture of International Relations and Global Order

Global order refers to the web of rules, institutions, and norms that structure relations among states and other actors. The liberal order built after 1945 rested on two premises: the stabilising role of American leadership and the universal appeal of liberal democracy and free markets. Both assumptions are now under stress. The shift in material power is unmistakable. China, India, and other emerging economies are reshaping trade, technology, and regional security. Some foresee a managed bipolarity centred on Washington and Beijing; others predict a more complex multipolarity in which middle powers wield greater agency. Either way, the post-hegemonic world may not enjoy the predictability once linked to American primacy. This shift has profound implications for International Relations theory, challenging assumptions about polarity, stability, and strategic balance that have long defined the discipline.

Beyond power redistribution, the normative foundations of the Western-led order are eroding. Perceived double standards in intervention and conflict responses have weakened liberalism’s moral authority. Many non-Western powers, especially in the Global South, seek a redefinition of norms informed by distinct civilisational experiences rather than passive inclusion within existing structures. This has given rise to what some describe as civilisational politics: Russia, China, and others present themselves as custodians of unique cultural heritages rather than converts to Western universalism. Institutions such as BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation reflect this pluralisation of legitimacy. Whether these movements crystallise into enduring post-Western arrangements or remain instruments of strategic positioning is uncertain, but they signal a move toward a more plural normative landscape.

The Geopolitics of Outer Space: The New Frontier of Power

The emerging order will not be confined to Earth. Rapid advances in rocket technology, robotics, and satellite systems are transforming outer space from a scientific frontier into a central arena of geopolitical competition. Once an abstract stage for Cold War rivalry, space now hosts a crowded field of state and private actors seeking strategic advantage, commercial profit, lunar and asteroid resources and technological prestige and dominance. In the 1960s, space exploration symbolised human progress. Today it mirrors the world’s fractures. States are racing to establish lunar stations, asteroid-mining projects, and cislunar monitoring systems. Private........

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