Water has been an important natural resource since the beginning of civilization. It is one of many resources studied in the field of International Relations, from a variety of perspectives and theories, to examine its influence on politics and state behavior. The decrease in water supplies brought on by climate change has made water an contentious subject in social and political debates, and the rivalry over water's limited supplies during the global water crisis poses important justice issues of allocation, accessibility, lawful recipients, and prioritized uses. When Ethiopia began filling the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) in 2020, the dispute between Ethiopia and Egypt over the GERD and the Nile Basin was not just about generating electricity. It was about sovereignty, identity, and history. While a realist perspective frames the issue as a matter of national interest and security, we will approach the subject through the lens of identity and perception. How do the conflicting identities and discourses of Egypt and Ethiopia over the Nile River and the GERD shape their political behavior? 

*Originally published in 2025. E-International Relations is free to read. We rely on reader support to make this possible.

The historical roots of the Nile conflict 

Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan are engaged in a long-standing disagreement over the Nile, the world's longest river. Despite the breakdown of mediated negotiations, all three countries remain heavily dependent on the river. The Nile is a transboundary river, with Egypt and Sudan as the downstream nations that depend heavily on its water for various purposes, albeit to varying degrees. More than 97% of Egypt's freshwater and 77% of Sudan's freshwater comes from the Nile River. For the past 5,000 years, Egypt maintained regional hegemony and enjoyed unchallenged access to the Nile. 

Colonial powers mostly fueled the conflict between the nations of the Nile Basin. To promote the sugar and textile industries, these colonial powers sought to establish sizable plantations to produce cotton and sugarcane, which they exported to Europe and other continents. Britain controlled treaty negotiations over the use of the Nile River to safeguard its interests in Egypt, at the expense of the other riparian governments. These treaties gave Egypt priority water rights. This laid the historical foundations for the imbalance in the distribution of the Nile's waters, which remains one of the main reasons for the conflict among the nations of the basin. 

After gaining independence, many African nations rejected the colonial agreements as biased and not legally valid. The Republic of Sudan renegotiated the 1929 agreement and, on November 8, 1959, in Cairo, reached a revised agreement with the United Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the full utilization of Nile waters. This marked the first agreement between sovereign nations in the Nile Basin.  The agreement confirmed that Sudan would receive less water than Egypt, despite the river's major portion flowing through Sudan. However, Ethiopia and other upstream countries viewed the deal as unjust because it restricted their ability to utilize and develop the Nile's resources.

Egypt’s identity and the existential threat narrative 

Egypt depends entirely on the Nile River for its freshwater needs. Ethiopia claims exclusive rights to use these water sources, with more than 80% are being consumed. This situation has made it a permanent goal for Egyptian leadership to ensure the continued flow of Nile waters. The significance of the Nile in ancient Egyptian thought stems from two fundamental reasons. First, Egypt was often referred to as the ‘gift of the Nile’, which explains the deep respect and veneration Egyptians held for the river. Second, it was considered inconceivable that the lifeblood of Egypt originated outside its sacred lands. This belief in the sacred nature of the Nile has helped to shape Egypt's national identity and its perception as a homeland. 

The modern Egyptian thinker Jamal Himdan emphasized a critical perspective on the Nile's importance by stating: "The first civilization was the fruit of a blissful union between Egypt and the Nile. If history is the father of the Egyptians, then Egypt is the mother of the world, and the Nile is simply the greatest ancestor of human civilization". Furthermore, the Nile River is considered an integral part of Egyptian identity, deeply embedded in the culture, mythology, and political discourse of what it means to be Egyptian. The management and control of the Nile became apparently a religious issue in both Egyptian and Ethiopian minds, historically associated with a miraculous theme in Christianity until the 19th century. So, the Nile serves as a socially and spiritually constructed symbol rather than just a natural resource. Both Ethiopians and Egyptians revere the Nile, viewing it as having a divine origin and being intertwined with their national destinies. This belief influences their behavior, conventions, and even their states' interests. 

As a result, the tensions surrounding the Nile are rooted in deep cultural and religious narratives that extend beyond mere political or security concerns. The threat posed by dam construction to Egypt's access to the Nile could redefine aspects of its........

© E-International