The recent Pakistan–India and Israel-Iran wars show that cities and infrastructure are at great risk during wars. However, we can learn from the strategic aspects of military and defence planning, which accommodate uncertainty, risk, and complexity in their policies and operations.

Dr Stone, King's College London, defines ‘uncertainty’ as a lack of relevant knowledge, ‘complexity’ refers to interactions that hamper the accurate prediction of outcomes, and ‘risk’ is the possibility of an adverse outcome. He explains the following similarities between defence strategies and urban policies and planning.

Theoretically, military and urban planning align their strategies and planning processes to meet political objectives. In practice, the outcomes of wars are complex to predict because the responses of adversaries, international support and supply chain challenges are uncertain; therefore, we must accept some level of risk. Similarly, urban mega-projects are complex and challenging to implement due to the changing nature of the global and national economies, as well as their increased costs and uncertain benefits. Both wars and urban planning involve the dangers of investing too much or spending too little.

This situation can improve if we learn from history and identify the underlying dynamics. History demonstrates how complexities have been addressed and capabilities developed to achieve political objectives. War is a political strategy as much........

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