Several high-profile political leaders have in recent months been seen apparently dabbling in Nazi allusions. In many cases, dog whistle messages send oblique signals to supporters. These are pitched at a frequency that most listeners can’t hear but are meaningful to those seeking confirmation of their own views.

When challenged, the people using these tactics often respond with strong and furious rebuttals. After emphasising their shock that they would be associated with Nazi imagery or ideas, they typically go on the offensive. They express indignation and moral outrage. Then, they demand an apology.

These hostile counterattacks often place their critics on the defensive. If the allusion to the Nazis becomes too obvious to deny, perpetrators typically claim they weren’t aware of the historical association and insist it was all an innocent mistake.

This is the dog whistle playbook: strategic ambiguity followed by belligerent counterattack, and then, if needed, plausible deniability.

Of the many recent cases of Nazi allusions, Elon Musk’s straight-arm salute – a gesture he performed twice at a rally celebrating Donald Trump’s second inauguration – is one of the most notorious.

Far from denying he’d made the gestures, Musk went on the attack dismissing criticisms as “pure propaganda”. He argued that critics in the Democratic party were conducting “ideological witchhunts” and needed “better dirty tricks” because Adolf Hitler references........

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