Just a few years ago, the idea of someone marrying their AI chatbot might have sounded like the plot of a film. Today, it is no longer just an idea. In July 2025, an article in The Guardian featured people who describe their relationships with chatbots as deeply meaningful, including a man who “married” his AI beloved “in a digital ceremony”. Later that month, a piece in GQ explored how AI girlfriends are reshaping the way men express vulnerability and emotional need. These examples reflect a broader shift in how people relate to technology. In a world where media outlets and government bodies warn of an “epidemic of loneliness”, and long-term relationships face increasing strain, the rise of AI companions points to our growing willingness to treat non-human entities as emotionally significant partners.

Social science researchers have long been interested in companionship, which is rooted in mutual affection, shared interests, a desire to spend time together, and, especially, intimacy and personal fulfilment. As digital technologies advance, these qualities are no longer found exclusively in human-to-human relationships. The emergence of AI companions suggests that similar bonds can form with entities that exist only in software, which led our research team to investigate how intimacy is created, sustained and experienced in human-AI relationships.

Creators of AI companion apps such as Replika, Nomi.AI or Character.AI often market their chatbots in ways that humanise them, emphasising that qualities they present are “better” than those of human partners. For instance, Luka Inc., the creator of Replika, markets its product as “the AI companion who cares. Always here to........

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