Since the groundbreaking adverse childhood experiences study (ACEs; Felitti et al., 1998), research exploring the relationship between childhood adversity and detrimental adult behaviors and health outcomes has proliferated. More recently, scholars have begun examining the other end of the continuum, namely, positive childhood experiences (PCEs; Bethell et al., 2019; Crandall et al., 2020; Narayan et al., 2018; Sege & Harper Browne, 2017). PCEs (also called benevolent childhood experiences and counter-ACEs) have been linked to better health in adulthood (Crandall et al., 2019); less self-harm, mood disorders, and suicidal ideation (Bunting et al., 2023); better mental health and psychosocial outcomes (Kallapiran et al., 2025); more self-regulation (Rollins & Crandall, 2021); and less loneliness (Unsal et al., 2025). Not only may PCEs mitigate or buffer against ACEs, but they also appear to have direct independent effects on positive outcomes (Bethell et al., 2019; Rollins & Crandall, 2021).

PCEs are not just the absence of adversity (i.e., the lack of ACEs); instead, they are the presence of beneficial factors that support children’s development (Hero et al., 2021). Several frameworks for PCEs exist that include promotive factors such as quality relationships with at least one caregiver, peer, and nonparent adult (e.g., teacher); opportunities for constructive social engagement; parental monitoring; beliefs that give comfort and meaning; predictable routines at home; safe neighborhoods; school connectedness; opportunities for emotional growth; stable, safe environments; social and emotional competencies; positive view of self; familial support; and opportunities to have a good time (Bethell et al., 2019; Crandall et al., 2020; Narayan et al., 2018; Raghunathan et al., 2024; Sege & Harper Browne, 2017). Importantly, PCEs are best conceptualized as an array of beneficial, advantageous experiences in multiple domains of the child’s ecological system, rather than just one specific experience (Crandall et al., 2020).

One of the most studied relationships to date in PCE literature is the association with substance use (Hero et al., 2025). Specifically, PCEs have been associated with less substance use among adolescents (Afifi et al., 2023; Broadbent et al., 2022; Crandall et al., 2020), less cigarette use and high-risk drinking behaviors among adults (Graupensperger et al., 2023), and recovery from substance use disorders among adolescents (Kim et al., 2024). Indeed, in a scoping review of 220 articles, scholars determined highly researched inverse relationships between........

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