HISTORY is never linear or monolithic. It may progress in leaps and bounds, or falter and regress. It may appear calm and seamless, but be restive and roiling beneath the surface. No wonder, a small trigger can lead to a cataclysm. Historians have long debated whether historical dialectics shape human destiny, or human agency lights up the darkest epochs of history. There’s no definite answer as yet. But there is a broad consensus among them on two requisites of a historical ‘development’ — ripe ‘objective’ conditions, and an intelligent leadership that can transform a conducive environment into, at the very least, meaningful change.

Interestingly, the modern era manifests both trends. We see countries and societies long affected by broken governance, endemic corruption, political instability, economic meltdown, civil strife, and regional and global conflagrations. Significant parts of the Middle East, North Africa, and South and West Asia are a dismal reflection of failed or failing states ruled by autocrats or absolutist dynasties — largely without popular mandate and without accountability. Yet there are countries once dismissed as ‘basket-cases’ that have turned themselves around — such as Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, Turkiye, South Korea, and China. Over the years, they have taken tremendous strides in terms of political stability, socioeconomic progress, scientific and technological advancement, and human-resource development. They have carved out a large share for themselves in international supply chains and........

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