THE Afghan war’s end and USSR’s collapse led to Talibanisation (spread of Taliban ideology, practice and militant tactics). After USSR left Afghanistan in 1989, thousands of mujahideen with arms and networks remained, fuelling the Taliban’s rise from refugee camps and madressahs. They interpreted Islamic law strictly. By 1996, their control extended to parts of Afghanistan. When the US invaded Afghanistan, they moved to Fata, where local militants formed alliances and created TTP, leading to Talibanisation. They attacked schools, LEAs and security forces and set up parallel governance entities.

The British had focused on territorial separation, tribal autonomy under FCR, governance via political agents and collective punishment instead of creating courts in these areas. They didn’t invest in the barren tribal belt; the British-Indian army used coercion. From 1877 to 1947, they tried to understand tribal dynamics. Limited control was kept via political agents and local militias, and tribal interaction through maliks. These areas were free from police, courts and taxes. Political agents, mostly ex-military men, spoke fluent Pashto and knew the tribal culture.

In 1901, NWFP was created as a chief commissioner province,........

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