The book The Essentials of Hindutva, written in 1922 by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, laid the foundation for a divisive ideology that defined India as a homeland for Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, marginalizing other communities. Savarkar’s assertion that Hinduism encompassed India’s socio-economic and cultural landscape resonated deeply with extremist ideologies, paving the way for violent extremism in Indian society. This philosophy inspired the establishment of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), ostensibly in response to the Muslims’ Khilafat Movement, but in reality, as a proponent of Hindutva ideals. The RSS emerged as a significant political and cultural force in India, fueling polarization and shaping the country’s socio-political trajectory.

After India gained independence, the newly-formed nation, led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, faced the challenge of establishing a secular, democratic state. Despite the drafting of a constitution under the leadership of B. R. Ambedkar that guaranteed minority rights, these protections were rarely upheld. Violations against minorities were starkly evident as early as 1948 when India sent troops into Jammu and Kashmir, leading to conflict with Pakistan. Although Nehru promised a UN-supervised plebiscite for the Kashmiri people, it was never conducted. Instead, his declaration of Kashmir as an integral part of........

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