Russia’s invasion of Ukraine more than three years ago brought the specter of nuclear conflict back to the forefront. At various points during the bloody conflict, Russian officials have threatened a nuclear strike in Ukraine or against NATO.

Though the nuclear threats by Russian leader Vladimir Putin and others in his inner circle—notably former Russian president and current deputy chairman of the Russian national security council Dmitry Medvedev—have typically been dismissed in the West as empty saber-rattling, some high-level officials have worried about the content of those threats. Former CIA director, Bill Burns even revealed that the US government believed there had been a “genuine risk” of a Russian tactical nuclear strike in the fall of 2022, during Ukraine’s successful counteroffensive in the north.

“There was a moment in the fall of 2022 when I think there was a genuine risk of a potential use of tactical nuclear weapons,” the former CIA leader stated. Others observed that Russia likely believed a tactical nuclear strike in Ukraine would not lead to a broader nuclear war with the West, an unthinkable outcome on either side.

Russian President Vladimir Putin believed that he was entering into a quick conflict that would last anywhere between three days and two weeks. Not only could his forces not achieve their goals, but the Ukrainian forces also counterattacked, liberating hundreds of square miles of territory in just a few days. It was at that point that the Kremlin contemplated a tactical nuclear strike to........

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