In 2006, Clive Humby, a mathematician and data scientist, delivered a talk titled “Data is the new oil”. He emphasised that similar to oil, data is valuable, but only when refined and processed. When first coined, the metaphor highlighted the economic potential of data as a resource. While this remains relevant, the value of data has today expanded to become a strategic asset of national power and influence. Control over the collection, storage, processing, and flow of data is now fundamental to a nation’s strategic sovereignty.

Algorithms, fuelled by vast datasets, shape nearly every aspect of our daily lives. They influence what we buy, how we commute, what food we order, what information we see on social media, and how we access services. This promotes convenience and efficiency, but there is also a darker side. The algorithms operate with little transparency and can become instruments of strategic surveillance and behavioural modification. For example, the algorithmic curation of information on social media platforms can influence public opinion and political outcomes. Cambridge Analytica claimed to have influenced the 2016 US election by harvesting data from millions of Facebook users to build detailed psychographic profiles. Using this information, they deployed microtargeted political ads tailored to voters’ personalities, fears, and beliefs, often exploiting polarising issues like immigration, Islamophobia, and racial biases.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has significantly amplified the risks associated with data. Unlike earlier uses of data that supported routine processes, AI uses data to forecast outcomes and influence........

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