Sea-level rise is often cited as the main cause of rising groundwater that inundates low-lying coastal communities. However, in the port city of Gwadar on Pakistan’s Makran coast, the causes are more complex and interconnected. Rising groundwater in Gwadar results from both climate change and human activities.

Sea-level rise pushes saltwater upward, and years of over-pumping draw seawater into aquifers—underground layers of water-bearing sediment.

With 80% of the city lacking a sewer system, wastewater seeps into shallow aquifers, directly raising groundwater. Land-use changes, such as encroachment and reclamation (the conversion of sea to land), disrupt natural drainage, preventing runoff from reaching the sea and instead increasing water retention. These combined changes reduce the land’s ability to absorb rainwater, leading to frequent flooding, ecological disruption, and threats to city foundations.

Around the world, coastal aquifers are feeling the pressure of rising seas. Driven by climate change, denser seawater creeps inland beneath lighter freshwater, increasing pressure underground and pushing water levels higher. In low-lying Gwadar City, this link is direct: its shallow, unconfined aquifer connects straight to the Arabian Sea. When heavy rain or high tides saturate the aquifer, the water table can climb above the ground surface, unleashing groundwater inundation in the city’s lowest neighbourhoods flooding that comes not from the sea’s edge, but from beneath residents’ feet.

Over the past three to four years, Gwadar City’s coastal community has experienced intermittent groundwater inundation,........

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