Humanity has long looked to the sky and beyond, considering what it would be like to live away from the only life-bearing planet we know about. With the dangers of outer space travel and the lengthy times away, many researchers examine the psychological effects and how to prevent and alleviate those that are adverse.

Anyone traveling to outer space should be aware of the risks. Currently, staying alive means staying cocooned inside the spacecraft, spacesuit, or settlement. While planetary-scale engineering or genetic engineering may yet happen, Earth-like environments that are habitable for humans are a long way from either.

Scientists investigate psychological responses to long-term experiences of lack of natural light, spatial confinement, ambient noise, living and working with the same small group of people, and mental adjustments to the physical and cognitive changes induced by spaceflight.

Risk awareness and risk management can take a particularly high mental toll, notably in the context of isolation. Many actions or inactions bring the possibility of death upon oneself and fellow travellers. It might be too difficult to process due to an explosion or decompression. It might be a long, slow ending if the ship is off-course or if the settlement’s supply lines are cut without hope for rescue. People with a sense of Earth as home must be psychologically attuned to the possibility of never again setting foot on this planet.

Mental and physical fatigue are common challenges for astronauts. Disrupted sleep and body rhythms, never-ending rote but........

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