Traditional Chinese stratagem, or 謀略 (Mou Lue), can be traced back to the Warring States Period (c. 475–221 BC) in ancient China. Most people, including scholars in China, hold the view that Mou Lue is purely Machiavellian in nature, with nothing related to ethics, philosophy, or virtue. In other words, the ends justify the means.

Furthermore, the legendary thinker Guiguzi, founder of the ancient School of Vertical Alliances and Horizontal Alliances (Zong Heng Jia, 縱橫家), or simply the School of Diplomacy, is commonly regarded as the founder of the discipline of Mou Lue. Guiguzi’s teachings were severely criticized by mainstream Confucians throughout Chinese history. His work, Guiguzi, was forbidden in China for a long time, even though many statesmen and officials studied it privately for its insights and practical wisdom.

In this article, I will argue that Mou Lue, or “stratagem,” originated from Confucian concepts and was further developed by thinkers and practitioners up to modern times in China. This approach is unconventional, but I hope it will encourage a more creative understanding of the discipline of Mou Lue for academic and practical purposes.

The Concept of Jing Quan

Jing (經)

According to Confucius, Jing means the “normal and constant way of living” or “the way that one is obliged to practice.” Later, the concept of Jing was associated with (禮) “Li,” which means the appropriate manners and rites for living, including the institutions practised during the Zhou Dynasty.

Following the use of the Six Classic Texts of Confucianism, known as the Six Classics (六經), the discipline of Classical Chinese Studies (經學, Jing Xue) was established. Consequently, Jing came to refer to the ideas and content of these classical texts.

Nevertheless, there is a common thread linking all these different meanings. Jing is a set of constant and common ways of living virtuously and appropriately in society. These ways range from simple manners to formal institutions in ancient China.

Quan (權)

For Confucius, Quan represents the final and highest phase of personal development. Even when a virtuous person follows Li, their development is incomplete unless they master Quan. Quan means the art of weighing circumstances.

A gentleman must weigh different circumstances and make appropriate decisions in human affairs. However, Confucius did not provide any specific rules or guidelines on how to exercise the art of Quan. It is very likely that he believed that if a gentleman cultivated a heart of (仁) “Ren,” or benevolence, he would naturally know how to apply the art of Quan.

The idea of Quan was also studied by other schools of thought. Contrary to Confucianism, (道家) Taoism emphasized the concept of (變) “Bian” (change) rather than Jing. The universe is not in a constant state but is changing continuously. There is no unchanging way.

Zhuang Zhou (莊周), a pioneer of Taoism, viewed Quan as more important than Jing in this changing world, advocating the concept of (權變) “Quan Bian” (weighing and change).

According to (墨家) Mohism, the practice of Quan is not related to specific ethical principles but is an art of making decisions or judgments after weighing different factors in a given situation. However, one must exercise this art rationally and consider the consequences.

The Legalist School (法家) also held that a ruler should practise Quan in political leadership and statecraft.

Tang Dynasty: The Treatise on the Art of Long and Short

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), a scholar named Zhao Rui (趙蕤) wrote a book known as Zhan Duan Jing (The Treatise on the Art of Long and Short), discussing statecraft throughout history. The title of Chapter Three is Quan Bian (權變), or “Weighing and Change,” which presents two core ideas underlying the entire book.

First, everything in society and the state, including political theories, ethics, and institutions, develops gradually and eventually decays, leading to consequences that may be entirely opposite to its original beneficial purpose. This is known as the theory of Fan Zhi (反致), or “opposite return.” That is why another name for the book is (反經) Fan Jing, or “The Treatise of Opposition.”

Second, because everything changes, our approaches to statecraft should adapt to........

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