The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed in 1960 under the auspices of the World Bank, remains one of the most enduring examples of trans- boundary water governance. It created a binding legal framework for the distribution of the Indus river system between India and Pakistan at a time when both states were still defining their post-colonial relationship. Under its terms, the three eastern rivers – the Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej – were allocated to India for unrestricted use, while the three western rivers – the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab – were assigned to Pakistan. The arrangement recognised Pakistan’s dependence on these western rivers for agriculture, energy, and economic stability. The IWT did not give India a free hand over the western rivers. It permitted only India to develop run-of-the-river hydroelectric projects, but explicitly barred the storage of water and any actions that would disrupt downstream flows essential to Pakistan’s survival. This balance was the core of the agreement: allowing limited upstream development while protecting downstream rights. For over six decades, despite wars, diplomatic crises, and political hostility, the mechanism held because both sides operated within its legal boundaries. That equilibrium was tested after the Pahalgam attack episode in April 2025. In its aftermath, India unilaterally declared that it would hold the........

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